Summary of 104 recent scientific studies promoting the use of Graphene derivatives
... in vaccines, medications, masks, swabs, ventilation filters, clothing, inks, etc, to combat the invisible Sars-CoV-2... because it does not exist.
Summary of 104 recent scientific studies promoting the use of Graphene derivatives in vaccines, medications, masks, swabs, ventilation filters, clothing, inks, etc, to combat the invisible Sars-CoV-2... because it does not exist.
from french, courtesy of Dominique Guillet - xochipelli.fr
When I wrote my very long dossier entitled "A Graphene Oxide Pandemic?", I briefly mentioned a few studies that claimed to use graphene oxide, in biosensors, to be able to better locate the invisible HullVoid virus - which, to date, has never actually been discovered, exposed, isolated, purified, characterised and photographed.
Here, then, is a brief presentation of some recent, or very recent, studies promoting the use of graphene derivatives in vaccines, medications, masks, clothing, ventilation filters, inks, etc, to combat invisible Sars-CoV-2.
These graphene derivatives include graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, carbon quantum dots, graphene quantum dots, fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanopulps, etc.
Caveat. This summary does not take into account studies into the use of graphene derivatives for biosensors, PCR test platforms, etc, etc - in connection with the diagnosis of the CoYid/19 false pandemic. There have been hundreds of such studies since spring 2020.
In fact, according to the study presented earlier, "Nanotechnology in the COVID-19 era: Carbon-based nanomaterials as a promising solution", since the launch of the fake pandemic, the number of studies dealing with Graphene in the management of the CoqueVide/19, has increased by 9600% compared to 2019. In this study, on nanotechnologies in the CoqueVide/19 era, the term "graphene" appears 148 times, the term "carbon" appears 117 times and the term "vaccines" appears 40 times. [26]
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September 2023. A nano-vaccine and a micro-needle vaccine patch, both made from graphene oxide, have been developed by the Institute of Nano Biomedicine and Engineering in Shanghai, China. All better?
This study, published on 4 September 2023 in the journal "Theranostics", is entitled "Developing an efficient MGCR microneedle nanovaccine patch for eliciting Th 1 cellular response against the SARS-CoV-2 infection". [113]
Rationale: Research and development of new vaccines is essential to interrupt the COVID-19 pandemic and other epidemics in the future. Subunit vaccines have received particular attention due to their low cost and safety. To improve the immunogenicity of subunit vaccines, we have developed a new adjuvant system for vaccines.
Methods: We rationally designed a bi-adjuvant system based on CpG 1018 and graphene oxide to deliver the receptor binding domain (RBD) of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein and obtained the graphene oxide-based complex adjuvant nano-vaccine. In addition, we developed a microneedle-based vaccine patch based on the graphene oxide complex adjuvant nano-vaccine.
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"Nano dimensions/adjuvants in COVID-19 vaccines".
February 2022. This is a study published recently - in March 2022 - by the Journal of Materials Chemistry B. [ 62] The author is Professor Edouard Alphandéry (Sorbonne).
A favourable outcome to the COVID-19 crisis could be achieved by mass vaccination. The proposed vaccines contain several different vaccine active ingredients (VAPs), such as inactivated virus, antigen, mRNA and DNA, which are combined with either standard adjuvants or nano-materials (NMs) such as liposomes in the Moderna and BioNTech/Pfizer vaccines. The adjuvants in the COVID-19 vaccine can be chosen from liposomes or other types of nano-materials composed, for example, of graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes, micelles, exosomes, membrane vesicles, polymers or metallic NMs, taking inspiration from cancer nano-vaccines, whose adjuvants may share some of their properties with those of viral vaccines.
It is surprising, to say the least, to read, from the pen of Edouard Alphandéry - who is, moreover, clearly a It is surprising, to say the least, to read in the pen of Edouard Alphandéry - who is, moreover, clearly a "massive vacinaliste" - that CoqueVide vaccines may contain, as adjuvants, liposomes or other types of nano-materials composed, for example, of graphene oxide, carbon nanotubes, micelles, exosomes, membrane vesicles, polymers or other metallic nano-particles.
Since 2006, Edouard Alphandéry has been promoting the use of iron oxide nanoparticles functionalized with magnetotactic bacteria - known as magnetosomes - to treat cancers. Graphene oxide - and other graphene derivatives such as carbon nanotubes - are therefore, for him, the logical continuation of his earlier work.
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"Designing a Novel Nano-Vaccine against SARS-CoV-2".
The new SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus has become a global pandemic, which has had a considerable impact on the lives of people around the world and caused huge impacts and losses on global economic development. To date, there is still no effective drug or therapy against the coronavirus. A large number of studies have shown that vaccines are the ultimate weapon for eliminating major infectious diseases. The development of new vaccines against new coronaviruses is the best way of preventing new coronavirus infections. In this study, we developed a new vaccine against the new coronavirus by combining the nanoadjuvant we developed ourselves, loaded with carnosine graphene oxide, with the CpG molecule and the RBD protein antigen. Our results showed that this vaccine can produce a high titer of anti-SARS CoV-2 RBD neutralising SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in mice within 2 weeks. [53]
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"Nano coronavirus recombinant vaccine taking graphene oxide as carrier".
On 11 July 2021, researchers at Quinta Columna discovered that a patent relating to the use of graphene in vaccines against CoqueVide/19 had suddenly appeared on the Web. The title of the patent is as follows: "Nano coronavirus recombinant vaccine taking graphene oxide as carrier" [601 ] The application for this patent dates from 27 September 2020 and the applicant is the Shanghai National Engineering Research Center for Nanotechnology. The patent was published on 15 January 2021. According to the summary of the patent application, this invention - namely a vaccine using graphene as a carrier - belongs "to the field of nano-materials and nano-medicine and relates to a vaccine, more particularly to the development of a nuclear recombinant nano-vaccine against Covid19".
This is patent CN112220919A required by the Shanghai National Engineering Research Center for Nanotechnology.
The Quinta Columna researchers thought the patent was a fake because a request to the Net Archives only reveals this url for 8 July 2021 - and never before. [602] Nevertheless, Dani, from the Info Vacunas channel, has looked into the matter and has pointed out that the PDFs, in Chinese - with some information in English - are completely authentic. They are illustrated with various diagrams , including an image of a rat injected with graphene oxide [1196].
This same sketch of a rat injected with graphene oxide can also be found in the Chinese patent application entitled "Designing a novel nano-vaccine against SARS-CoV-2" - which dates from 2020 [1197] [1198]. This patent is also required by the Shanghai National Engineering Research Center for Nanotechnology - and it is highly likely that it is a variation of patent CN112220919A because, although the title is different, it has no reference number.
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"Real Nano "Light Vaccine" Will Benefit to COVID-19 Pandemic Control... with multiple walls carbon nanotubes
A "UV light vaccine" functionalized with multi-walled carbon nanotubes (Graphene) to combat the false HullVoid/19 pandemic
This study, published in August 2021, is entitled "Real Nano "Light Vaccine" Will Benefit to COVID-19 Pandemic Control" [28].
Researchers at Fudan University, in collaboration with Columbia University, have developed a piece of equipment called a "light vaccine", which can emit pure UVC light with a wavelength of 222 nm, achieve a germicidal effect of 99.9% on microbes such as viruses and bacteria, in particular SARS-CoV-2, and achieve great success in preventing and controlling pandemics at the recent Olympic Games in Tokyo.
We proposed to prepare a type of carbon nano-tubes with the function of exerting acidification for the increase of local cytoplasmic and cellular temperature by photothermal conversion, based on the physical and chemical nature of carbon nano-tubes that has been well applied to facilitate such a response.
This article presents a recent "light vaccine" technique for the control of the COVID-19 pandemic. Although this technique has a germicidal advantage over SARS-CoV-2, its shortcomings will limit its wide and deep application. We present a perspective for a real-world nanolight vaccine, which will play an important role in the prevention and control of the COVID-19 pandemic. In brief, this flowchart describes the fabrication of multi-walled carbon nano-tubes using a conditional mixture of strong acid and base to obtain multi-walled carbon p/nano-tubes (chemical process), then their modification with layse RNA and receptor binding domain (RBD) by covalent conjugation and physical uptake to obtain multi-walled carbon f/nano-tubes (functionalization) ; the multi-walled carbon f/nano-tubes were then used in the SARS-CoV-2 interacting multicell culture system to identify the specific affinity of the multi-walled carbon f/nano-tubes for ACE2-labelled type II alveolar cells and the inhibitory capacity of SARS-CoV-2.
The real function of this design, which is different from the so-called "light vaccine", is to combat SARS-CoV-2 by increasing the local cellular temperature through photothermal conversion under the irradiation of near-infrared light, in accordance with the physical and chemical nature of carbon nanotubes, and to initiate the resulting immune response.
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"Nanotechnology-facilitated vaccine development during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic".
As explained in great detail in an illustration: Chronology of FDA-approved nanotechnologies and nanocarriers. (A) Chronology of FDA approval of nanotechnologies for therapeutic applications and vaccines. (B) Summary of nanocarriers commonly used for drug and vaccine delivery: (a) Carbon nanotubes. Their basic structure is graphene, made up of carbon atoms densely organised in a honeycomb (hexagonal) pattern with regular sp2 bonds on an atomic scale. They can be classified as single- or multi-walled carbon nanotubes, functionalized with peptides, proteins, nucleic acids and drugs, and exhibit low toxicity and immunogenicity. [189]
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"Advances in Nanomaterial-Based Platforms to Combat COVID-19: Diagnostics, Preventions, Therapeutics, and Vaccine Developments"
The COVID-19 pandemic is due to SARS-CoV-2, a ribonucleic acid (RNA) virus that appeared less than two years ago, but has caused almost 6.1 million deaths to date. Recently developed variants of the SARS-CoV-2 virus have been shown to be more potent and to develop more rapidly. To date, there is no specific, effective treatment for SARS-CoV-2 in terms of a reliable, lasting cure. Precaution, prevention and vaccination are the only ways of bringing the pandemic situation under control. Medical and scientific professionals are now focusing on repurposing earlier technologies and trying to develop more successful methodologies for detecting the presence of viruses, treating patients, taking precautionary measures and developing vaccines. Nanomedicine or nanotechnology-based platforms can play a crucial role on these fronts. Researchers are working on a number of effective approaches using nano-sized particles to combat SARS-CoV-2. The role of a nanoscale platform in the fight against SARS-CoV-2 is extremely varied (marker, individual protection suit, rapid diagnostic tool, targeted treatment and vaccine development). Although there are many theoretical possibilities for using a nanoscale platform to combat SARS-CoV-2, there has so far been insufficient research targeting SARS-CoV-2 to explore such scenarios. The aim of this unique mini-review is to compile and elaborate on recent advances in nanotechnology-based approaches to SARS-CoV-2 prevention, diagnosis, treatment and vaccine development, as well as the associated challenges. [52]
"Nanotechnology in the COVID-19 era: Carbon-based nanomaterials as a promising solution".
June 2023 study. The 2019 coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19) has led to a collaboration between nanotechnology scientists, industry players and clinicians to develop solutions for the diagnosis, prevention and treatment of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infections. Nanomaterials, including carbon-based materials such as graphene and carbon nanotubes, have been studied for their potential in viral research. The unique effects of carbon-based materials on micro-organisms, immune interaction and diagnostic sensitivity have made them a promising subject for SARS-CoV-2 research. This review discusses the interaction of carbon-based materials with SARS-CoV-2 and their applicability, including the physical and chemical properties of carbon-based materials, known interactions between carbon-based materials and viral components, and proposed uses in prevention, treatment and diagnostics. [26]
Scientists have played a fundamental role in elucidating the immune and, more generally, blood kinetics of carbon-based nanomaterials for the creation of new treatments and vaccines. From the immunostimulation required for vaccination to the immune suppression of the cytokine storm generated by COVID-19.
In fact, according to this study, since the launch of the fake pandemic, thenumber of studies focusing on Graphene in the management of CoqueVide/19, has increased by 9600% compared to 2019.
In this study of nanotechnologies in the HullVacuum/19 era, the term 'Graphene' appears 148 times, 'Carbon' 117 times and 'Vaccine' 40 times.
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"Can Carbon Quantum Dots (CQDs) or Boron Compounds be an Ultimate Solution for COVID-19 Therapy?"
Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) is a highly transmissible infectious disease caused by the SARS coronavirus (SARS-CoV), for which there is currently no approved treatment. COVID-19 is a new strain of coronavirus that has never been identified in humans. It is also a member of the coronavirus family and is known to cause similar illnesses in humans. The latest epidemic has been described as a pandemic because of the COVID-19 infections in humans. This review has been prepared to provide information to readers or scientists on a new generation of boron-doped or boron-attached composite quantum dots during the design phase of drugs or drug delivery systems to be developed to combat COVID-19 and to assist in the design of new drugs and systems by opening up new horizons. All scientists and researchers must rapidly share their ideas and experiences in the fight against COVID-19 in order to find a better therapy or strategy for humans, so that we can succeed. In this sense, this journal offers readers new ideas and rational perspectives. In conclusion, boron-containing composite carbon quantum dots appear to be the most appropriate delivery system for treating COVID-19 infections, particularly when delivered via the lungs. [23]
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"Functional Carbon Quantum Dots as Medical Countermeasures to Human Coronavirus".
There is an urgent need to find therapeutic solutions to infections by the highly pathogenic human coronavirus (HCoV). Anti-coronavirus therapy is a challenge, however, because coronaviruses are biologically diverse and mutate rapidly. In this work, the antiviral activity of seven different carbon quantum dots (CQDs) for the treatment of infections by the human coronavirus HCoV-229E was studied. The first generation of antiviral CQDs was obtained by hydrothermal carbonisation of ethylenediamine/citric acid as carbon precursors and postmodified with boronic acid ligands. These nanostructures showed concentration-dependent virus inactivation with an estimated EC50 of 52 ± 8 μg mL-1. CQDs derived from 4-aminophenylboronic acid without further modification gave rise to the second generation of anti-HCoV nanomaterials with an EC50 lowered to 5.2 ± 0.7 μg mL-1. The underlying mechanism of action of these CQDs was found to be the inhibition of HCoV-229E entry, which could be due to the interaction of the functional groups of the CQDs with HCoV-229E entry receptors; surprisingly, an equally strong inhibitory activity was observed at the viral replication stage. 2019. [176]
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"An Overview on Exploitation of Graphene-Based Membranes: From Water Treatment to Medical Industry, Including Recent Fighting against COVID-19".
Graphene and its derivatives have recently received increased attention for various environmental applications of membrane technology, such as water treatment and air filtration, exploiting their antimicrobial and antiviral activity. They are attractive candidates as membrane materials due to their exceptional mechanical and chemical stability and their fine two-dimensional (2D) nanostructure with potential pore engineering for advanced separation. All of these applications have evolved and diversified from their discovery to the present day, and now graphene and its derivatives also offer fascinating opportunities in the fight against infectious diseases such as COVID-19 thanks to their antimicrobial and antiviral properties. This article presents an overview of graphene-based 2D materials, their preparation and their use as membrane materials for applications in water treatment and respiratory protection devices. [166]
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"Facile Synthesis of N-Doped Graphene Quantum Dots as Novel Transfection Agents for mRNA and pDNA".
Given their exceptional stability, even at room temperature, and their low toxicity, nitrogen-doped graphene quantum dots should constitute new universal gene transfer platforms, more effective than LNPs and viral vectors. No kidding?
In the wake of the 2019 coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19), international pharmaceutical companies have been developing vaccines against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2). Some have adopted lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) or viral vectors to deliver the genes associated with the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein for vaccination. This strategy of vaccination using gene delivery to express viral proteins has been successfully applied to mRNA vaccines for COVID-19 and is also applicable to gene therapy. However, conventional transfection agents such as LNPs and viral vectors are not yet sufficient to meet the levels of safety, stability and efficacy required for clinical applications of gene therapy.
In this study, we synthesised nitrogen-doped graphene quantum dots (NGQDs) for the transfection of various genes, including messenger ribonucleic acids (mRNAs) and plasmid deoxyribonucleic acids (pDNAs). The positively charged nitrogen-doped graphene quantum dots were able to form electrostatic complexes with negatively charged mRNAs and pDNAs, effectively delivering and transfecting the genes into the target cells. The transfection efficiency of nitrogen-doped graphene quantum dots is comparable to that of commercially available LNPs. Given their exceptional stability, even at room temperature, and their low toxicity, nitrogen-doped graphene quantum dots should constitute new universal gene transfer platforms, more effective than LNPs and viral vectors.
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"Progress on Applying Carbon Dots for Inhibition of RNA Virus Infection - flue, SARS, COVID-19, MERS
Viral infections are a major global health problem. Every year, deadly new RNA viruses emerge and mutate in unexpected ways, threatening health and safety. In the meantime, there is an urgent need to explore new antiviral agents, but they take years to become clinically available. Nevertheless, the development of carbon quantum dots over the past 20 years has highlighted their vast potential for application and revealed their promising capacity as future antiviral agents, given their versatile properties and significant antiviral responses. As a result, carbon dots have been widely studied as an alternative to traditional chemotherapy for inhibiting viral infection and replication in vitro. In parallel, attempts to apply carbon quantum dots to in vivo systems are in high demand. In this review, recent developments in antiviral therapies based on carbon quantum dots are systematically summarised. In addition, the role of carbon quantum dots in photodynamic inactivation to kill viruses or bacteria is briefly discussed. August 2021. [178]
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"Developments in Nano-materials and Analysing its role in Fighting COVID-19".
Nanomaterials such as silver, iron, ceramics, graphene, carbon nanotubes and others. They are being used to develop and create multifunctional materials to combat the corona virus. This work focuses on analysing and discussing developments in nanomaterials and their effectiveness in combating and preventing the spread of the corona virus. It also analyses the use of nanomaterials in the development of vaccines and antiviral drugs. However, the use of carbon-based materials, such as carbon dots and other forms of carbon, has not only helped to increase levels of protection in human life, but has also provided greater safety and freedom for people to go about their daily activities without fear of being infected by the virus. The application of graphene-based materials for the manufacture of unique face masks and germ-trapping technologies is presented. [32]
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"Adsorption of Favipiravir on pristine graphene nanosheets as a drug delivery system: a DFT study".
June 2023 study. [ 16 ] The efficacy of pristine graphene in the delivery process of the anti-COVID-19 drug Favipiravir was revealed in Favipiravir/pristine graphene complexes, in perpendicular and parallel configurations, using the density functional theory (DFT) method.
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"The Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 3CL Mpro by Graphene and Its Derivatives from Molecular Dynamics Simulations".
At present, the most potent new drugs for COVID-19 are antibody proteins. In addition, there are a few blockbuster small molecule drugs. However, there are few studies on nanomaterials. Here we study intact graphene, defective graphene and graphene oxide that interact with the COVID-19 protein. We find that they show progressive inhibition of the COVID-19 protein. [14]
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"Exploring the Potential of Carbon Dots to Combat COVID-19".
In the search for a promising strategy, carbon dots could be considered as a potential nanostructure against this viral pandemic. This study explores the possibility of using carbon nanodots to combat COVID-19 on the basis of a number of reported studies. Carbon dots are photoluminescent carbon nanoparticles, less than 10 nm in size, with highly interesting photostable and biocompatible properties, which can be modified or functionalised on the surface. These tiny photoluminescent particles have attracted a great deal of interest because of their functionalisation properties and biocompatibility. In response to this pandemic epidemic, this study attempts to summarise the potential use of carbon dots in antiviral therapy, with particular emphasis on their likely role in the fight against COVID-19, including their possible applications in biosensing. December 2020. [179]
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"The Potential of Various Nanotechnologies for Coronavirus Diagnosis/Treatment Highlighted through a Literature Analysis".
July 2020. [ 61 ] The author is Professor Edouard Alphandéry (Sorbonne).
With the current epidemic of COVID-19, it has become essential to develop effective methods for treating and detecting this virus. Among the new approaches that could be tested, the one based on nanotechnologies finds one of its main foundations in the similarity between the size of nanoparticles (NP) and that of coronaviruses (COV), which favours NP-COV interactions. As COVID-19 is very recent, most studies in this field have focused on other types of coronavirus than COVID-19, such as those involved in MERS or SARS. Although their number is limited, they have produced promising results on various VOCs using a wide range of different types of nanosystems, for example nanoparticles, quantum dots or polymer/protein nanoassemblies. More work is needed in this area to consolidate these results. Here, I first summarise the various nanotechnology-based methods used for VOC detection, i.e. optical, electrical or PCR methods, the sensitivity of which has been improved by the presence of nanoparticles. In addition, I present vaccination methods that include nanoparticles used either as adjuvants or as active ingredients. They often produce a better controlled immune response, perhaps due to better antigen presentation/processing than in non-nanoparticulate vaccines. Some antiviral approaches have also benefited from the use of nanoparticles, leading to specific mechanisms such as blocking virus replication at the cellular level or reducing VOC-induced apoptotic cell death.
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"Interactions between carbon nanotubes and external structures of SARS-CoV-2 using molecular docking and molecular dynamics".
Molecular modelling techniques were used to describe the interaction process between carbon nanotubes and the main structures of the Covid-19 virus: the envelope protein, the main protease and the Spike glycoprotein. 2022. [63]
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"Carbon-Based Nanomaterials: Promising Antiviral Agents to Combat COVID-19 in the Microbial Resistant Era".
Therefore, carbon-based nanomaterials (CBNs), such as fullerene, carbon dots, graphene and their derivatives, are a promising alternative due to their broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity, biocompatibility, biodegradability and ability to induce tissue regeneration. In addition, the antimicrobial mode of action is predominantly physical (e.g. membrane distortion), which is characterised by a low risk of antimicrobial resistance. In this review, we assessed the literature on the antiviral activity and broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties of CBNs. CBNs have antiviral activity against 12 enveloped single-stranded positive RNA viruses similar to SARS-CoV-2. With little or no toxicity to humans, CBNs are promising therapeutics against COVID-19 pneumonia complex and other viruses, bacteria and fungi, including those that are multi-drug resistant. 2021. [64]
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"Nanotechnology based solutions to combat zoonotic viruses with special attention to SARS, MERS, and COVID 19: Detection, protection and medication".
Nanotechnologies offer new solutions for combating zoonotic viruses by providing effective and inexpensive detection methods, new rapid diagnostics and new effective therapies. The potential of nanotechnologies for COVID 19 is exceptionally high due to their small size, high surface-to-volume ratio, sensitivity to modification and intrinsic viral activity. Nanotechnology-based strategies address COVID 19 by extending their role to i) the design of nanomaterials for drug/vaccine delivery, ii) the development of nanotechnology-based diagnostic approaches such as nanosensors, iii) new nanotechnology-based personal protective equipment for use in prevention strategies. October 2021. [54]
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"Graphene-based Materials for Fighting Coronavirus Disease 2019: Challenges and Opportunities".
Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19), caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is considered to be a serious global threat and the greatest challenge of recent times. Several approaches have been developed to combat COVID-19. Among these, nanotechnology is one of the promising approaches to meet these challenges in the current situation. Recently, graphene-based nanomaterials have been studied for COVID-19 because of their unique physico-chemical properties. This mini-review presents recent advances in graphene-based nanomaterials and their applications for COVID-19 diagnosis, detection, decontamination and protection. In addition, the main challenges and prospects for the fundamental design and development of technologies based on graphene-based materials are discussed and appropriate directions for improving these technologies are suggested. This article will provide timely knowledge and future directions on these wonderful materials in various biological applications. ]
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"Role of different types of nanomaterials against diagnosis, prevention and therapy of COVID-19".
Therefore, in this study, we review previous research on nanomaterials that may be effective in guiding strategies to combat the current COVID-19 pandemic and reduce hazardous infectious waste in the environment. We highlight the contribution of nanomaterials that have potential for therapy, prevention, targeted viral protein detection and may also be useful for broad population screening, sensor development and environmental filters. In addition, we are investigating the potential for using nanomaterials in antiviral research and treatment development, looking at the role of nanomaterials in antiviral drug design, including the importance of nanomaterials in drug delivery and vaccination, as well as in the production of medical equipment. Nanomaterial-based technologies not only contribute to ongoing research efforts on SARS and CoV-2, but can also provide platforms and tools for the understanding, protection, detection and treatment of future viral diseases. September 2021. [52]
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"Large-Sized Graphene Oxide Nanosheets Increase DC-T-Cell Synaptic Contact and the Efficacy of DC Vaccines against SARS-CoV-2".
16 August 2021. [651 ] Namely that large graphene oxide plates increase dendritic cell/T cell synaptic contact as well as the efficacy of dendritic cell vaccines.
The aim of this Chinese study is to analyse the interactions between graphene oxide and dendritic cells as a function of the size of these nano-particles. The ultimate goal is to create improved dendritic cell vaccines with very large graphene oxide nano-particles - i.e. >1 µm.
In this study, the term vaccine is mentioned 53 times... to say that we are indeed talking about thedevelopment of vaccines based on graphene oxide nanoparticles. Is this quite clear?
"In this study, we extensively investigated the effects of graphene oxide on the functional and biological properties of dendritic cells, focusing on dendritic cell/T-cell synaptic formation. In particular, we systematically tested the protective efficacy of a graphene oxide-functionalised dendritic cell vaccine against the newly emerged Sars-CoV-2 .
The size of the graphene oxide nanoparticles in this study ranged from 500 nm to around 1 micron.
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"SNAP@CQD as a promising therapeutic vehicle against HCoVs: An overview".
March 2023 study. [ 133] This report examines potential therapies to treat human coronaviruses and their economic impact. Specifically, we explore therapies that can support the body's immune response, including immunoglobulin (Ig)A, IgG and T-cell responses, to inhibit the viral replication cycle and improve respiratory function. We hypothesise that carbon quantum dots conjugated to S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine (SNAP) could provide a synergistic alternative remedy for treating respiratory damage caused by human coronavirus infections. To this end, we propose to develop aerosols containing SNAP motifs that release nitric oxide and are conjugated to promising nanostructured materials. These sprays could combat human coronaviruses by inhibiting viral replication and improving respiratory function. They could also offer other advantages, such as new possibilities for nasal vaccines in the future.
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Employing functionalized graphene quantum dots to combat coronavirus and enterovirus
January 2023 study. [ 91 ] The COVID-19 (i.e. coronavirus) pandemic continues to affect human life, the economy and the global ecosystem. Although significant progress has been made in the development of antiviral materials for the coronavirus, much remains to be done. In this work, N-functionalised graphene quantum dots were designed and synthesised as antiviral nanomaterials for feline coronavirus NTU156 (FCoV NTU156) and enterovirus 71 (EV71) with very high inhibition (>99.9%). To prepare the graphene quantum dot samples, a unique microwave-assisted solid-phase technique was developed and cell toxicity was established on H171 and H184 cell lines after 72 hours incubation, indicating superior biocompatibility. The surface functionality of the graphene quantum dots (i.e. the phenolic and amino groups) plays a key role in the interaction with the receptor-binding domain of the epi protein. It was also found that the addition of polyethylene glycol is advantageous for the dispersion and adsorption of the functionalized graphene quantum dots onto the virus surface, leading to improved virus inhibition. The functionality of the as-prepared graphene nanomaterials/quantum dots was confirmed by a glass coated with functionalized graphene quantum dots, which was found to be extremely effective in preventing the spread of the virus for a relatively long period (>20 h).
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"Graphene oxide/silver nanoparticle ink formulations rapidly inhibit influenza A virus and OC43 coronavirus infection in vitro".
Graphene oxide and silver nanoparticles are two materials with documented antimicrobial properties. Here, we tested the in vitro antiviral properties of several composite materials based on graphene oxide and silver nanoparticles, which were prepared by three different methods: reduction with a silver salt, direct addition of silver nanospheres and direct addition of silver nanospheres to thiolised graphene. These materials were tested in the short term for their antiviral activity against two enveloped RNA viruses, the influenza A virus and the OC43 coronavirus, by performing viral plaque tests after exposure of the viruses to each material. It was found that the graphene oxide and silver nanoparticle-based materials generated by the direct addition of silver nanospheres were able to completely inhibit plaque formation by both viruses within one minute of exposure. The materials generated by the other two methods showed varying levels of efficacy against the influenza A virus. These studies indicate that composite materials based on graphene oxide and silver nanoparticles can rapidly neutralise RNA viruses and demonstrate their potential for use in a wide range of applications. 56]
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"Graphene Oxide Nanosheets Interact and Interfere with SARS-CoV-2 Surface Proteins and Cell Receptors to Inhibit Infectivity".
This study clearly suggests theuse of graphene oxide in medicines and vaccines toeliminate the coronavirus .
Here is a translation of the abstract. "Nano-technologies can offer a number of options against Covid/19 pathology by acting both on host cells, intra-cellularly or extra-cellularly. The aim of the present study is to explore graphene oxide, the most widely studied 2D nano-material for bio-medical applications, as a nano-platform for interacting with Sars-CoV-2. Molecular docking point analyses were performed on graphene oxide sheets interacting with three structures: the SARS-CoV-2 viral spike (open state 6VYB or closed state 6VXX), ACE2 (1R42) and the ACE2-bound spike complex (6M0J). When comparing the binding affinities, and the types of bonds involved, graphene oxide interacts more strongly with spike or ACE2 compared to 6M0J. Infection experiments using virus particles from four different clades (as classified by the Global Initiative on Sharing all Influenza Data (GISAID)) were carried out for validation purposes. Biological grade graphene oxide plates at the nano-scale (a few hundred nanometres in lateral dimension) are capable of significantly reducing copies of three different viral clades. These data demonstrated that graphene oxide sheets have the capacity to interact with the surface components of Sars-CoV-2 and to disrupt infectivity even in the presence of any mutation in the viral spike. Graphene oxide nanoplates are thus proposed for future exploration as a nanoplatform for the development of anti-viral strategies against Covid/19". Translation and underlining by Xochi. 14 May 2021. [646]
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"Antiviral performance of graphene-based materials with emphasis on COVID-19: A review".
Here is a translation of the abstract. "On the premise that there is no definitive treatment for the recent viral crisis, this paper provides a review of nano-materials with anti-viral activity, focusing in particular on graphene and its derivatives - including graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide and carbon quantum dots .The potential interactions between the surfaces of such nano-materials and coronaviruses are explained. The anti-viral mechanisms of graphene-based nano-materials can be correlated to events such as inactivation of the virus and/or host cell receptor, electrostatic capture or physico-chemical destruction of viral species. These effects can be amplified by functionalising and/or decorating carbon shapes with species that enhance graphene/virus interactions. The large-scale, low-cost manufacture of graphene-based nano-materials with enhanced anti-viral properties is therefore an interesting area of research to explore". Translation and underlining by Xochi. September 2021. [647]
In this article, the term "nano-vaccine" is strictly used. We are talking about a graphene-based nano-vaccine, aren't we?
Among a plethora of information that is highly relevant to our quest, I noted the following paragraph in the article: "Another point worth noting is thefact that graphene-based nanomaterials can be loaded with magnetic materials and thusgenerate additional benefits correlated with the magnetic capacities obtained.For example, Deokar et al. produced charged magnetic nanoparticles on reduced graphene oxide. Following irradiation of the compound with near-infrared light, the nano-composite material was able to effectively capture and destroy, photothermally, the herpes virus (HSV-1) with an efficiency of around 99.99% - i.e. greater than that of the magnetic nano-particles alone.The excellent performance of the graphene-based nano-material was attributed to its efficiency in capturing the virus, a large surface area and the excellent photothermal properties of graphene combined with the electrostatic interactions between the magnetic nano-particles and the viral particles". Translation and underlining by Xochi.
Of note is an April 2020 study entitled "A molecular docking study repurposes FDA approved iron oxide nanoparticles to treat and control COVID-19 infection" which discusses the use of iron oxide nanoparticles to treat CoqueVide. [648]
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"Lethal Interactions of SARS-CoV-2 with Graphene Oxide: Implications for COVID-19 Treatment".
Here is part of the abstract. "In this study, an in-depth investigation was carried out to understand the process of inactivation of Sars-CoV-2 by graphene oxide. We focused our research on the influence of graphene oxide nanoplates on three strains of Sars-CoV-2, Wuhan, B.1.1.7 (UK) and P.1 (Brazil)..... Furthermore, as the effect of surface contamination can be severe in the spread of Sars-CoV-2, the development of protective surfaces, or protective coatings, based on graphene oxide nano-plates, could play an important role in controlling the spread of the virus, through the use of non-woven fibres, filters, etc, based on graphene oxide. "Translation and Emphasis by Xochi. 14 October 2021. [649]
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"Graphene nanoplatelet and graphene oxide functionalization of face mask materials inhibits infectivity of trapped SARS-CoV-2".
June 2021. [ 650 ] This study concerns the manufacture of textiles - including face masks - air filters, water filters and other protective equipment based on graphene and graphene oxide.
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"Cationic crosslinked carbon dots-adjuvanted
intranasal vaccine induces protective immunity against Omicron-included SARS-CoV-2 variants".
A new study from May 2023. [ 94] Mucosal immunity plays an important role in first-line defence against viruses transmitted and infected through the respiratory system, such as SARS-CoV-2. However, the lack of effective and safe adjuvants currently limits the development of COVID-19 mucosal vaccines. In the present study, we prepare an intranasal vaccine containing cationic cross-linked carbon dots and a SARS-CoV-2 antigen, RBD-HR, with spontaneous antigen particulation. Intranasal immunisation with cationic cross-linked carbon dots/RBD-HR induces high levels of antibodies with broad-spectrum neutralisation against authentic virus/pseudovirus variants included in Omicron and protects immunised female BALB/c mice against Omicron infection.
We demonstrate that cationic cross-linked carbon dots are a promising intranasal vaccine adjuvant for inducing strong mucosal immunity and could be a candidate adjuvant for the development of intranasal vaccines against many types of infectious diseases, including COVID-19.
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"Novel nanotechnology solution for cleaner, safer air".
The pandemic has taught us many things, not least that airborne transmission of pathogens is a major concern for the general public and that, as a result, governments, health organisations and the public have paid increased attention to ventilation and indoor air quality. March 2023. [33]
Even as the situation returns to normal, the triple convergence of influenza, respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) and SARS-CoV-2 (COVID-19), which is threatening public health, highlights the need for innovative measures to curb the spread of these airborne infectious pathogens.
That's where Nordic innovators Graphene Composites (GC) come in. A world leader in advanced materials engineering, GC has developed a unique nanomaterial-based coating for air filters, GC Halo®, which destroys viruses, bacteria and moulds on contact. Made from graphene oxide and silver nanoparticles, the coating destroys pathogens by forming a layer that traps and kills them on porous materials such as air filters. Air filters capable of trapping and killing viruses and bacteria in ventilation systems are essentially a new invention - until now, air filters could only do that, filter out some of the particles carrying these viruses and bacteria.
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"Graphene Oxide Nanosheets Interact and Interfere with SARS-CoV-2 Surface Proteins and Cell Receptors to Inhibit Infectivity".
Nanotechnologies may offer a number of options for combating the 2019 coronavirus (COVID-19), which acts both extracellularly and intracellularly on host cells. The aim here is to explore graphene oxide (GO), the most studied 2D nanomaterial in biomedical applications, as a nanoscale platform for interaction with SARS-CoV-2. Molecular docking analyses of GO sheets on interaction with three different structures: SARS-CoV-2 (open state - 6VYB or closed state - 6VXX), ACE2 (1R42), and the ACE2-bound spike complex (6M0J). GO showed a high affinity for the surface of all three structures (6M0J, 6VYB and 6VXX). When the binding affinities and types of binding involved are compared, GO interacts more strongly with the spike or ACE2 than with 6M0J. Infection experiments using infectious virus particles from four different clades, classified by the Global Initiative for Sharing Influenza Data (GISAID), are performed for validation purposes. Thin, biological-grade GO sheets at the nanoscale (a few hundred nanometres in lateral dimension) are able to significantly reduce copies for three different viral clades. These data demonstrated that GO sheets have the ability to interact with SARS-CoV-2 surface components and disrupt infectivity even in the presence of mutations on the viral spike. It is proposed to further investigate GO sheets as a nanoscale platform for the development of antiviral strategies against COVID-19. June 2021. [46]
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"Potentialities of graphene and its allied derivatives to combat against SARS-CoV-2 infection".
This review article is dedicated to exploring the utilities of graphene and its derivatives in the fight against SARS-CoV-2 by highlighting their mechanism and applications in the manufacture of biosensors, personal protective equipment (PPE) kits, 3D printing and antiviral coatings. In addition, the document also covers the cytotoxicity caused by graphene and its derivatives and highlights aspects of the market for graphene-based derivatives in biomedical fields. So graphene and graphene-derived materials are our new hope in this time of pandemic, and this study provides a wealth of knowledge about them. March 2022. [32]
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"Graphene Sheets with Defined Dual Functionalities for the Strong SARS-CoV-2 Interactions".
Although several vaccines are currently under development, the virus, and in particular its lead glycoprotein, can mutate, highlighting the need for a broad-spectrum inhibitor. In this work, the inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 by graphene platforms with a specific dual sulphate/alkyl functionality is investigated. A series of graphene derivatives with different aliphatic chain lengths were synthesised and investigated for their ability to inhibit SARS-CoV-2 and feline coronavirus. Graphene derivatives with long alkyl chains (>C9) inhibit coronavirus replication by disrupting the viral envelope. The ability of these graphene platforms to disrupt viruses is visualised by atomic force microscopy and cryogenic electron microscopy. A broad concentration window (10 to 100-fold) in which the graphene platforms exhibit strong antiviral activity against native SARS-CoV-2 without significant toxicity to human cells was found. In this concentration range, the synthesised graphene platforms effectively inhibit the infection of enveloped viruses, thus opening up new therapeutic and metaphylactic avenues against SARS-CoV-2. 2021. [45]
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GC Inkâ„¢: About Graphene and Silver nano-particulate inks with alleged anti-viral properties: masks, wipes, ventilation filters...
On 27 February 2021, GC claimed that "Their GC Inkâ„¢ Neutralises 100% of coronavirus and flu in less than a minute." [8]
As the eyes of the world remain on the roll-out of COVID-19 vaccines, we are unveiling a new nanomaterial technology - GC Inkâ„¢ - that could make our most vulnerable public spaces safer from the transmission of viruses and bacteria, including Coronavirus, by neutralising them.
GC Inkâ„¢ has been independently tested by Brown University to show 100% efficacy in neutralising coronaviruses and influenza viruses in less than a minute, and the results have been published on bioRxiv.
This fast-acting, highly effective and safe formulation of graphene and silver nanoparticles can be applied to masks, and other personal protective equipment, and in particular to ventilation system filters. When used in filters and masks, GC Inkâ„¢ is highly effective at trapping and neutralising airborne coronavirus and other viruses/bacteria for several weeks. When used in wipes, GC Ink also leaves a thin layer of highly effective and safe protection against viruses and bacteria that lasts for 24 hours.
The GC technology is highly effective because it has a dual-action mechanism: the negatively charged surface of the graphene oxide traps the positively charged parts of the water droplets and the protein spikes of the coronavirus; the silver nanoparticles release ions that oxidise the lipid membrane protecting the coronavirus RNA, thereby neutralising it.
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"Role of Nanomedicine in Management and Prevention of COVID-19. Frontiers in Nanotechnology".
More specifically, a series of nanotechnology-based products, such as nanosilver, are currently on the market because they have demonstrated their ability to combat viruses. This article provides an overview of the role of nanomedicine, including polymeric and inorganic materials, and its future capabilities in managing the epidemic. Taking all this into account, we have tried to inform readers as simply as possible about the role nanomedicine can play in disease management. 2020. [37]
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"Nanomedicine: A Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approach to COVID-19. Frontiers in Medicine."
We then examine the general concepts and limitations of how nanomedicine could respond to the COVID-19 threat. Nanomaterials are particles on the nanometre scale (10-100 nm) that possess unique properties related to their size, polarity and structural and chemical composition. Nanoparticles can be composed of precious metals (copper, silver, gold), inorganic materials (graphene, silicon), proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, RNA/DNA or conjugates, combinations and polymers of all these elements. The advanced biochemical characteristics of these nanometric particles enable them to interact directly with virions and irreversibly disrupt their structure, which can render the virus incapable of replicating in the host. Virus-neutralising coatings and surfaces impregnated with nanomaterials can improve personal protective equipment, hand sanitisers and air filtration systems. Nanoparticles can improve drug therapies by optimising absorption, stability, target cell-specific delivery and magnetic properties. 2021. [35]
In fact, recent studies have highlighted the potential of nanoparticles in various aspects of the fight against SARS-CoV-2, such as improving biosensors and diagnostic tests, drug therapies, designing new delivery mechanisms and optimising vaccines . This article summarises current research into diagnostic strategies, treatments and vaccines against COVID-19, while highlighting the potential of nanoparticle-based pharmaceuticals and vaccines.
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"Nanomedicine as a promising approach for diagnosis, treatment and prophylaxis against COVID-19".
Interestingly, nanomedicine, as a promising therapeutic approach, could actually help win the battle between coronaviruses (CoVs) and host cells. This review examines potential therapeutic approaches and the contribution of nanomedicine against CoV in the fields of vaccination, diagnosis and therapy. 2020. [38]
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"Applications of nanomaterials in COVID-19 pandemic.
In this brief review, we examine how nanotechnologies offer new ways to combat COVID-19 and how nanomaterials can be used to control the COVID-19 epidemic. We also summarise relevant studies on the use of nanomaterials to prevent viral spread, prepare vaccines and diagnose coronavirus, as well as studies that show how nanoparticles can be used as drug delivery systems for the treatment of viral infections. Research into nanotechnology-based diagnosis, drug delivery and antiviral therapy is still in its infancy. However, the unique chemical properties of certain nanomaterials highlight the vast future prospects for nanomaterials, and we believe they will play an important role in the fight against COVID-19. 2021. [53]
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About the study "Reasons for the success of and lessons learned from nanoparticle vaccines against COVID-19
In this study entitled "Reasons for success and lessons learnt from nanoscale vaccines against COVID-19" - published in August 2021 and corrected in May 2022 - there is never any mention of graphene oxide but only of "PEGylated nanoparticles" in vaccines from Moderna, Pfizer, etc. [19]
However, the author of this study is Thomas Kisby, who is a graphene expert at Mancheter University in Manchester, UK - and part of the National Graphene Institute.
Thomas Kisby is the author or co-author of various studies on the use of 'therapeutic' graphene:
"Stable, concentrated, biocompatible, and defect-free graphene dispersions with positive charge". May 2020. [20]
"Deep tissue translocation of graphene oxide sheets in human glioblastoma 3D spheroids and an orthotopic xenograft model". October 2021. [21 ]
For those who still have doubts, the study reiterates that graphene oxide can "bypass biological barriers".
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"The Emergence of Carbon Nanomaterials as Effective Nano-Avenues to Fight against COVID-19".
COVID-19 (Coronavirus 2019), a viral respiratory disease first identified in Wuhan, China, in 2019 and subsequently spread worldwide, is caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The severity of the disease has necessitated rapid action to halt the spread of the virus. Best practices for preventing infection include early detection, use of protective clothing, consumption of antiviral drugs and, finally, immunisation of patients through vaccination. The family of carbon nanomaterials, which includes graphene, fullerene, carbon nanotube (CNT) and carbon dot (CD), has great potential to contribute effectively to each of the main avenues in the fight against coronavirus. Therefore, recent progress in the application of carbon nanomaterials to contain and combat the SARS-CoV-2 virus is discussed here, along with the associated challenges and futuristic applicability. 2023. [98]
With regard to the use of carbon nanotubes to make vaccines against Sars-CoV-2:
Among the various allotropes of carbon, CNTs [39] and graphene [40] have been widely used to develop vaccines against various diseases (Figure 7). widely used to develop vaccines against various diseases (Figure 7). In 2020, a Chinese group from the Shanghai National Engineering Research Center for Nanotechnology published a report [41] and subsequently filed a patent on the application of graphene oxide as a vector for a recombinant nano-coronavirus vaccine, claiming that the vaccine could be used for the prevention and treatment of the new coronavirus. Zhou et al [42] attempted to increase the efficacy of dendritic cell vaccines by introducing Graphene oxide nanosheets of different sizes. The study revealed that Graphene oxide with a diameter greater than 1 µm adhered strongly to the surface of dendritic cells and acted as a "nanozipper", resulting in the formation of a stable microenvironment for T cell activation. Furthermore, in mice infected with a strain of SARS-CoV-2, Graphene Oxide-adjuvanted dendritic cells stimulated cytotoxic T cell immune responses targeting SARS-CoV-2 peak 1 and eliminated more than 99.7% of viral RNA.
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"SARS-COV-2 infection and Parkinson's disease: Possible links and perspectives".
We also reviewed the influence of SARS-CoV-2 infection on the course and management of Parkinson's disease. In this context, we presented the prospects for controlling the COVID-19 pandemic and associated Parkinson's Disease which, beyond global vaccination and new anti-SARS-CoV-2 agents, could include the development of graphene-based nanoscale platforms offering antiviral and anti-amyloid strategies against Parkinson's Disease. 2023. [96
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"Low Dose of Ti3C2 MXene Quantum Dots Mitigate SARS-CoV-2 Infection".
Quantum dot MXenes have been used effectively in several areas of biomedical research. Given the role of immune system hyperactivation in infectious diseases, particularly COVID-19, quantum dot MXenes are potential candidates for nanotherapy against viral infections. However, the efficacy of quantum dot MXenes against SARS-CoV-2 infection has not yet been tested. In this study, Ti3 C2 quantum dot MXenes are synthesised and their potential for attenuating SARS-CoV-2 infection is investigated. Physicochemical characterisation suggests that quantum dot MXenes are enriched with an abundance of bioactive functional groups such as oxygen, hydrogen, fluorine and chlorine groups, as well as surface titanium oxides. The effectiveness of quantum dot MXenes was tested on VeroE6 cells infected with SARS-CoV-2. These data demonstrate that treatment with MXen quantum dots is capable of attenuating the multiplication of viral particles, only at very low doses such as 0.15 µg mL-1 . In addition, to understand the mechanisms of the anti-COVID properties mediated by quantum dot MXenes, a global proteomic analysis was performed to determine which proteins were differentially expressed between cells treated with quantum dot MXenes and untreated cells. The data reveal that quantum dot MXenes interfere with the viral life cycle via different mechanisms, including the Ca2 + signalling pathway, the IFN-α response, virus internalisation, replication and translation. These results suggest that quantum dot MXenescan be used to develop future immunoengineering-based nanotherapeutic strategies against SARS-CoV-2 and other viral infections. 2023. [91]
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"SARS-CoV-2 suppression depending on the pH of graphene oxide nanosheets".
The pH-dependent inactivation of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) by graphene oxide nanosheets is presented. The virus inactivation observed using a genuine virus (Delta variant) and different graphene oxide dispersions at pH 3, 7 and 11 suggests that the higher pH of the graphene oxide dispersion gives better performance compared to graphene oxide at neutral or lower pH. The present results can be attributed to the pH-induced functional group change and the overall charge of graphene oxide, which is favourable for the attachment between the graphene oxide nanosheets and the virus particles. 2023. [85]
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"The Entrapment and Concentration of SARS-CoV-2 Particles with Graphene Oxide: An In Vitro Assay".
Previous studies have suggested that graphene oxide has some antiviral capacity against certain enveloped viruses, including SARS-CoV-2. In this context, we wanted to test the in vitro antiviral capacity of graphene oxide using the viral plaque assay technique. Two-dimensional graphene oxide nanoparticles were synthesised using the modified Hummers method, varying the oxidation conditions to obtain nanoparticles between 390 and 718 nm. The antiviral activity of graphene oxide was assessed by experimental infection and plaque formation of the SARS-CoV-2 virus in VERO cells using a titrated viral clinical isolate. It was found that graphene oxide at concentrations of 400 µg/mL, 100 µg/mL, 40 µg/mL and 4 µg/mL was not toxic to cell culture, nor did it inhibit SARS-CoV-2 infection of VERO cells. However, it was clear that graphene oxide generated a new virus trapping phenomenon directly proportional to its concentration in the suspension. Similarly, this effect of graphene oxide was maintained in the trials carried out with the Zika virus. A new application for graphene oxide nanoparticles is proposed as part of a system for trapping viruses in surgical mask filters, air conditioning equipment filters and air purifier filters, supplemented by the use of viricidal agents capable of destroying the trapped viruses, an application of great interest for human beings. [81]
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"Graphene Oxide Decreases Pro-Inflammatory Proteins Production in Skeletal Muscle Cells Exposed to SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein".
The experiments aimed to document the presence of the ACE2 receptor on human muscle cells and the effects of the interaction of these cells with the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein in terms of the induction of pro-inflammatory proteins, as well as to assess the possibility of reducing the pool of these proteins through the use of graphene oxide flakes.
The experiments confirmed the presence of the ACE2 receptor in human skeletal muscle cells. The SARS-CoV-2 spike protein was also shown to influence the activation of certain pro-inflammatory proteins that promote cytokine storm and oxidative stress in muscle cells. The use of low levels of graphene oxide has no negative effect on muscle cells, reducing the levels of most proteins, including pro-inflammatory proteins. It can be assumed that graphene oxide may support anti-inflammatory therapy in muscles by eliminating the proteins that activate the cytokine storm. 2023. [82]
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"Tackling COVID-19 Using Antiviral Nanocoating's-Recent Progress and Future Challenges".
In the current context of the global coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, there is a worldwide demand to protect common handling surfaces against viral transmission in order to limit the spread of COVID-19 infection. To meet this challenge, researchers and scientists are constantly working on new antiviral nanolayers to manufacture various substrates capable of stopping the spread of these pathogens. These nanolayer systems include metal/metal oxide nanoparticles, electrospun antiviral polymer nanofibres, antiviral polymer nanoparticles, graphene family nanomaterials and etched nanostructures. The antiviral mechanism of these systems involves depletion of the tip glycoprotein, which anchors to surfaces via the nanocoating and renders the tip glycoprotein and viral nucleotides inactive; however, the nature of the interaction between the tip proteins and the virus depends on the type of nanostructure and a surface charge on the coating surface. This article examines the current scenario of COVID-19 and how it can be treated with antiviral nanolayers to prevent the transmission of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), as well as their different modes of action. In addition, the different types of nanolayers developed for various substrates to counter the transmission of SARS-CoV-2, future areas of research as well as the current challenges associated with them and how these challenges can be solved are also highlighted. 2022. [83]
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"Graphene oxide and flavonoids as potential inhibitors of the spike protein of SARS-CoV-2 variants and interaction between ligands: a parallel study of molecular docking and DFT".
Nanocarriers enable biomolecules to be linked to other structures in order to improve the effectiveness of treatment, thanks to the properties of the biomolecule compared with an existing drug, or to enable better and more specific administration. Apigenin and orientin are biomolecules with excellent therapeutic properties that are proposed for use in the fight against COVID-19. In addition, graphene oxide is a nanomaterial that exhibits antiviral activity and is used as a nanocarrier for several drugs. In this work, we evaluated, by means of molecular docking, the binding affinity between these structures and the spike protein receptor binding domain of two coronavirus variants, Delta and Omicron. The results indicate that all the structures exhibit affinity with both protein targets, with binding affinity values of -11.88 to -6.65 kcal/mol for the Delta variant and values of -9.58 to -13.20 kcal/mol for the Omicron variant, which is a satisfactory value as found in the literature as a potential inhibitor of SARS-CoV-2 infection. First-principles calculations based on density functional theory were also used to study the interaction of graphene oxide with the biomolecules apigenin and orientin. The results show low binding energy, indicating physical adsorption, with better results when the biomolecule is placed parallel to the nanomaterial due to attractive π-π staking. These results are conducive to the development of a nanocarrier. 2023. [90]
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"Functionalized Fullerene for Inhibition of SARS-CoV-2 Variants".
While virus epidemics continue to pose a challenge, a non-specific viral inhibitor may provide significant benefits, particularly against respiratory viruses. Polyglycerol sulphates have recently emerged as promising agents that facilitate cell-virus interactions via electrostatics, leading to virus inhibition. Similarly, hydrophobic C60 fullerene can prevent viral infection through interactions with hydrophobic cavities in surface proteins. Here, the two strategies are combined to inhibit infection of SARS-CoV-2 variants in vitro. Effective inhibitory concentrations in the millimolar range underline the importance of the hydrophobic fraction of naked fullerene and the electrostatic interactions of polysulphates with SARS-CoV-2 surface proteins. In addition, micro-scale thermophoresis measurements confirm that the linear polyglycerol sulphates of the fullerene interact with the SARS-CoV-2 virus via its spike protein, and highlight the importance of electrostatic interactions within the spike protein. All-atom molecular dynamics simulations reveal that the fullerene binding site is located in close proximity to the receptor binding domain, within 4 nm of the polyglycerol sulphate binding sites, allowing both parts of the material to interact simultaneously. 2023. [84]
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"Fullerene derivatives as inhibitors of the SARS-CoV-2 main protease".
COVID-19 is an ongoing global pandemic. Even today, there is a need to develop effective therapeutic agents. SARS-CoV-2 is known to be the virus responsible for COVID-19, and its major protease is one of the enzymes essential for its growth and is considered a target for drug discovery. In this study, we evaluated the inhibitory activities of a variety of fullerene derivatives, including newly synthesised derivatives, against the main protease of SARS-CoV-2. Fullerene derivatives of the malonic acid type showed the strongest inhibitory activity. 2023. [94]
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"Potential of Nano-Antioxidants and Nanomedicine for Recovery from Neurological Disorders Linked to Long COVID Syndrome".
Long-term neurological complications, which persist in patients who cannot fully recover several months after severe infection with the SARS-CoV-2 coronavirus, are referred to as the neurological sequelae of the long COVID syndrome. Among the many clinical symptoms of COVID-19 after the acute phase, neurological and psychiatric manifestations include prolonged fatigue, "brain fog", memory deficits, headaches, old age, anosmia, myalgias, cognitive disorders, anxiety and depression lasting several months. Given that neurons are highly vulnerable to damage caused by inflammation and oxidative stress following the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), it has been suggested that neuroinflammation and oxidative stress dominate the pathophysiological mechanisms of the long COVID syndrome. It is emphasised that mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress damage are crucial to the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders. Importantly, antioxidant therapies have the potential to slow and prevent disease progression. However, many antioxidant compounds exhibit poor bioavailability, instability and transport to targeted tissues, which limits their clinical applications. Different types of nanocarriers, such as liposomes, cubosomes, solid lipid nanoparticles, micelles, dendrimers, carbon-based nanostructures, nanoceria and other inorganic nanoparticles, can be used to improve the bioavailability of antioxidants. Here we highlight the potential of phytochemical antioxidants and other neuroprotective agents (curcumin, quercetin, vitamins C, E and D, melatonin, rosmarinic acid, N-acetylcysteine and Ginkgo Biloba derivatives) in therapeutic strategies for neuroregeneration. Particular attention is given to the beneficial role of nanoparticle drug delivery systems in addressing the challenges of antioxidants in the management and prevention of neurological disorders as factors in the long sequelae of von Willebrand disease. 2023. [87]
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"Coronavirus and Carbon Nanotubes: Seeking Immunological Relationships to Discover Immunotherapeutic Possibilities".
Since December 2019, the world has been facing an unprecedented pandemic crisis due to a new coronavirus, coronavirus-2019 (COVID-19), which has led to intensive studies on prevention and treatment options. Here we investigate the relationships between immune activation induced by three coronaviruses associated with recent epidemics, with particular attention to SARS-CoV-2, the causative agent of COVID-19, and immune activation induced by carbon nanotubes in order to understand the points of convergence in immune induction and modulation. Carbon nanotubes appear to be among the most promising materials for use as immunotherapeutic agents. This study therefore explores new possibilities for effective immunotherapies for COVID-19. The aim of this study was to generate interest and knowledge in the use of carbon nanotubes as immunotherapeutic agents in the treatment of coronaviruses. Thus, we summarise the most important immunological aspects of various coronavirus infections and describe the main advances and challenges in the use of carbon nanotubes as immunotherapeutic agents against viral infections and CNT-induced immune response activation, which may highlight the immunotherapeutic possibilities of carbon nanotubes. [123]
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"Allium sativum derived carbon dots as a potential theranostic agent to combat the COVID-19 crisis".
Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) is one of the worst pandemics to have struck humankind. Its manifestations are extremely varied, ranging from serious pulmonary infections to asymptomatic cases. It is therefore urgent to find new tools to speed up the end of this pandemic. Compromised immunity is one of the main characteristics of COVID-19. Allium sativum (AS) is an effective dietary supplement known for its immunomodulatory, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, anticancer, antifungal and antiviral properties. In this paper, it is hypothesised that carbon quantum dots, derived fromAllium sativum, may have the potential to down-regulate the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines and return immunological aberrations to normal in COVID-19. [175]
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"SNAP@CQD as a promising therapeutic vehicle against HCoVs: An overview".
This report examines potential therapies to treat human coronavirus (HCoV) and their economic impact. Specifically, we explore therapies that can support the body's immune response, including immunoglobulin (Ig)A, IgG and T cell responses, to inhibit the viral replication cycle and improve respiratory function. We hypothesise that carbon quantum dots conjugated to S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine (SNAP) could be a synergistic alternative remedy to treat respiratory injury caused by HCoV infections. [168]
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"Face mask-derived Ni, N-doped graphene sheets for electrocatalyticCO2-to-CO reduction".
The COVID-19 pandemic, which is still raging around the world every day, is using disposable masks on a massive scale, and is therefore placing a heavy burden on waste management. At the same time, the incineration of this medical waste further exacerbates the already overwhelming carbon emissions that are leading to global warming and climate change. In order to offer a potential solution to the problems of medical waste and CO2 emissions, here we develop a synthetic protocol for transforming Ni, N-doped graphene sheet masks (Ni-N-C) into catalysts for selectively reducing CO2 to CO electrochemically. [174]
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"Rapid, Sensitive, Label-Free Electrical Detection of SARS-CoV-2 in Nasal Swab Samples... with reduced graphene oxide
Rapid diagnosis of coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) is essential for long-term control of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) amid renewed threats of mutated SARS-CoV-2 worldwide. Here, we report label-free electrical detection of SARS-CoV-2 in nasopharyngeal swab samples collected directly from ambulatory patients or under saliva-relevant conditions, using a remote floating gate field effect transistor (RFGFET) with a two-dimensional reduced graphene oxide (rGO) sensing membrane. [173]
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"Wearable Graphene-based smart face mask for Real-Time human respiration monitoring".
Following the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, the use of masks is considered to be the most effective way of preventing the spread of respiratory fluids containing the virus. As the virus directly targets the lungs, causing breathlessness, continuous respiratory monitoring is crucial to assess health status. For this reason, the need for a smart face mask (SFM) capable of wirelessly monitoring human breathing in real time has attracted considerable attention. However, a number of challenges associated with the development of these devices need to be addressed to enable their practical use. One of the key issues is to design a wearable SFM that is biocompatible and has fast responsiveness for non-invasive, real-time monitoring of respiratory signals. Here we present a cost-effective and simple solution to produce innovative SFMs by depositing graphene-based coatings on commercial surgical masks. In particular, graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) are embedded in a polycaprolactone (PCL) polymer matrix. The resulting SFMs are morphologically characterised and their electrical, electromechanical and sensory properties are fully evaluated. The proposed SFM exhibits remarkable durability (over 1000 cycles) and an excellent fast response time (∼42 ms), simultaneously providing normal and abnormal respiratory signals with clear differentiation. Finally, a developed mobile application wirelessly monitors the respiratory pattern of the mask wearer and provides alerts without compromising user-friendliness and comfort. [172]
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"Amplification-Free Detection of SARS-CoV-2 Down to Single Virus Level by Portable Carbon Nanotube Biosensors".
The rapid and sensitive detection of viruses in trace amounts, in a simple and reliable manner, is of great importance for the prevention and control of epidemics. Here, we present a multifunctional biosensor based on a floating gate carbon nanotube field effect transistor (FG-CNT FET) for the rapid detection of SARS-CoV-2 antigen and RNA at the single virus level, using a portable detection platform. The aptamer-functionalised sensors can detect SARS-CoV-2 antigens from untreated nasopharyngeal swab samples within one minute. Furthermore, using a multi-probe strategy, the FG-CNT FET-based biosensor can detect long-chain RNA directly without amplification down to the level of a single virus in 1 min. [164]
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"Electrochemical sensors for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 virus".
The rapid development of highly sensitive and selective detection methods has become increasingly important, leading to different approaches to developing new electrochemical sensors. Sensor specificity or selectivity are the main challenges in sensor development. Therefore, to improve sensor selectivity, different types of nanomaterials have been used to fabricate new sensors, such as gold-based thin films, gold nanoparticles, graphene oxide, reduced graphene oxide, cobalt-functionalised TiO2 nanotubes, palladium thin films, poly-aniline, activated graphene oxide and gold nanoparticles. [171]
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"Recent advances in carbon quantum dots for virus detection, as well as inhibition and treatment of viral infection."
Over the past decade, carbon quantum dots, a new class of carbon-based nanomaterials, have received increasing attention because of their distinct properties. Ultimately, carbon quantum dots are small nanoparticles with an average size of less than 10 nm that possess high water solubility, attractive photoluminescence, photostability, excellent biocompatibility, low or zero toxicity, environmental friendliness and durability, etc. Historically, viruses have posed an intermittent threat to humans, animals and plants around the world, causing crises and having a huge impact on our lives, our environment, our economy and our society. Recent studies have revealed that certain types of carbon quantum dots exhibit high and powerful antiviral activities against various viruses such as human coronavirus, arterivirus, norovirus and herpesvirus. In addition, they have been successfully studied and developed for the detection of various viruses, including severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). This article exclusively presents and discusses recent advances in the design, synthesis, modification/functionalisation and development of carbon quantum dots for effective virus detection and the inhibition and treatment of viral infection. [165]
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"Graphene-based Nanomaterials in Fighting the Most Challenging Viruses and Immunogenic Disorders".
Viral diseases have long been among the greatest challenges facing healthcare systems worldwide. The recent coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic illustrates how complicated the situation can become if we are not prepared to combat a viral outbreak in time, highlighting the need for rapid and affordable biosensing platforms and a broad knowledge of potential antiviral effects and drug or gene delivery options. The same challenges apply to non-viral immunogenic disorders. Nanomedicine is seen as a new candidate to effectively address these global challenges. Among the versatile nanomaterials commonly used in biomedical applications, graphene has recently received much attention due to its special and interesting physicochemical properties, such as its large surface area, efficient thermal/electrical properties, carbon-based chemical purity with controllable biocompatibility, easy functionalization, single-molecule detection capability, anticancer characteristics, 3D patterning feature in tissue engineering and, in particular, antibacterial/antiviral activities. In this review, the most important and challenging viruses of our time, such as human immunodeficiency virus, Ebola, SARS-CoV-2, norovirus and hepatitis virus, and immunogenic disorders, such as asthma, Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, for which graphene-based nanomaterials can effectively participate in prevention, detection, treatment, medication and health effect issues, were addressed and discussed. [189]
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"Graphene materials: Armor against nosocomial infections and biofilm formation - A review".
The various combined forms of graphene with its conjugates as a suitable agent for combating nosocomial infections and as a potential coating for new challenges such as COVID-19 infections were also evaluated in the present study.
November 20222 study entitled "Graphene materials: Armor against nosocomial infections and biofilm formation - A review". [188]
Graphene has revolutionised the energy and storage sectors. Of the total number of nosocomial infections diagnosed worldwide, the majority of cases (around 70%) are due to the medical device or assistance used to treat the patient. The fight against these diseases is vital, as they are a nuisance for patients and practitioners alike. Coatings of graphene and its derivatives are the key to forming special surfaces capable of breaking microbial cells with their sharp edges, resulting in nuclear and cellular fragmentation. Their incorporation, in whole or in part, into hospital clothing and medical devices has helped practitioners to combat many nosocomial diseases. Graphene has proved highly virulent, with broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity against nosocomial strains and biofilm formation. Their alternative mode of action, such as scavenging and charge transfer, was also discussed in the present study. The different combined forms of graphene with its conjugates as a suitable agent for combating nosocomial infections and as a potential coating for new challenges such as COVID-19 infections were also evaluated in the present study. The efficiency of the graphene sheets was found to be around 89% with a reaction time of less than 3 h. Graphene-containing polymers appear to have a higher potency against biofilm formation. Combined with graphene oxide, silver nanoparticles had 99% activity against nosocomial pathogens. In conclusion, this study should serve as a guide for scientists working with graphene-based coatings to exploit the potential of this marvellous product to combat current and future pandemics.
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"Fabrication of air filters with advanced filtration performance for removal of viral aerosols and control the spread of COVID-19".
A wide range of materials play an important role in the production of efficient air filters. For example, metals, metal oxides or antimicrobial metal species that have antiviral and antimicrobial properties, including Ag, ZnO, TiO2, CuO and Cu, have played a role. Carbon nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes, graphene or its derivatives have also played an important role.
... A wide range of materials play an important role in the production of efficient air filters. For example, metals, metal oxides or antimicrobial metal species that have antiviral and antimicrobial properties, including Ag, ZnO, TiO2, CuO and Cu, have played a role. Carbon nanomaterials such as carbon nanotubes, graphene or its derivatives have also played an important role. In addition, natural materials such as biopolymers like alginate and plant extracts are used to prepare efficient air filters. In this review, we have summarised the use of various materials in the preparation of effective air filters for application in the preparation of medical masks and ventilation systems. The first part examines the use of metals and metal oxides, and the second part summarises the application of carbon-based materialsfor the manufacture of air filters. After reviewing the performance of natural materials, challenges and prospects for progress are discussed. [185]
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"Potential of graphene based photocatalyst for antiviral activity with emphasis on COVID-19: A review".
Coronavirus-2019 disease caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is one of the most worrying global epidemics in recent times. Semiconductor materials (photocatalysts) could prove to be effective sunlight-based technologies due to the variant of reactive oxidising species (ROS), including superoxide (-O2 - ) and hydroxyl (-OH) radicals, either by degrading proteins, DNA, RNA, or by preventing cell development by terminating the cell membrane. Graphene-based materials have been exquisitely explored for antiviral applications due to their extraordinary physicochemical characteristics, including large specific surface area, robust mechanical strength, tunable structural features and high electrical conductivity. Therefore, the present study highlights a perspective on the potential of graphene-based materials for photocatalytic antiviral activity. The interaction of the virus with the surface of graphene-based nanomaterials and the resulting physical and ROS-induced inactivation process were highlighted and discussed. The present review article, which focuses on antiviral mechanisms, should accelerate research in this area. [183]
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"A new insight into the transfer and delivery of anti-SARS-CoV-2 drug Carmofur with the assistance of graphene oxide quantum dot as a highly efficient nanovector toward COVID-19 by molecular dynamics simulation"
Currently, preventive and curative treatment of COVID-19 is an urgent global issue. Since nanomaterial-based drug delivery systems, as risk-free approaches for effective therapeutic strategies, can lead to immunisation against the COVID-19 pandemic, the delivery of Carmofur as a potential drug for the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 via graphene oxide quantum dots (GOQDs) was investigated in silico using molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. The MD simulation showed that π-π stacking and hydrogen bonding played an essential role in the stability of the Carmofur-GOQD complex. The spontaneous attraction of Carmofur-loaded GOQDs to the binding pocket of the main protease (Mpro) resulted in the penetration of Carmofur into the catalytically active region. The presence of GOQDs as an effective carrier for loading and delivery of the Carmofur inhibitor was found to affect the structural conformation of the Mpro. Higher RMSF values for key residues in the active site indicate their greater displacement to adopt Carmofur. These results suggest that the Mpro binding pocket is not stable upon interaction with the Carmofur-GOQD complex. This study provided insight into the potential application of graphene oxide quantum dots as an effective Carmofur drug delivery system for the treatment of COVID-19. [184]
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"3D-printed graphene polylactic acid devices resistant to SARS-CoV-2: Sunlight-mediated sterilization of additive manufactured objects".
Additive manufacturing has played a crucial role in the COVID-19 global emergency, enabling the rapid production of medical devices, essential hospital tools and personal protective equipment. However, medical devices, particularly in nosocomial environments, represent high-contact surfaces susceptible to infection by viruses, and the filaments currently used for 3D printing cannot inhibit virus transmission. Materials from the graphene family are capable of enhancing the mechanical, optical and thermal properties of 3D printed constructions. In particular, graphene can adsorb near-infrared light very efficiently. Here we demonstrate that the addition of graphene nanoplatelets to PLA filaments (PLA-G) enables the creation of 3D printed devices that can be sterilised by exposure to near-infrared light at a power density similar to that of sunlight. This method was used to kill SARS-CoV-2 virus particles on the surface of 3D printed PLA-G after 3 minutes of exposure. 3D printed PLA-G is highly biocompatible and may represent the ideal material for stem cell production. [15]
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"Engineering of 2D nanomaterials to trap and kill SARS-CoV-2: a new insight from multi-microsecond atomistic simulations".
At the end of 2019, coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) was caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). The Spike protein is one of the surface proteins of SARS-CoV-2, essential for its infectious function. It has therefore received a great deal of attention for the preparation of antiviral drugs, vaccines and diagnostic tools. In the present study, we use computational chemistry and biology methods to investigate the interaction between the spike protein and its receptor in the body, angiotensin I-2 converting enzyme (ACE2). In addition, the possible interaction between two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials, including graphene, bismuthene, phosphorene, p-doped graphene and functionalized p-doped graphene, and spike protein is being investigated. Functionalised p-doped graphene nanomaterials interfere better with spike protein than the other nanomaterials tested. In addition, the interaction of the proposed nanomaterials with the main protease (Mpro) of SARS-CoV-2 was studied. Functionalised p-doped graphene nanomaterials showed a greater ability to inhibit protease activity. These 2D nanomaterials effectively reduce the transmissibility and infectivity of SARS-CoV-2 by deforming the spike protein and inhibiting Mpro. The results suggest the potential use of 2D nanomaterials in a variety of prophylactic approaches, such as face masks or surface coatings, and would merit further study in the coming years. [17]
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"Insights into the conformation changes of SARS-CoV-2 spike receptor-binding domain on graphene".
Consequently, this study provides a theoretical basis for the application of graphene in protection against SARS-CoV-2, as well as a reference for the potential application of graphene in the biomedical field. [11]
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"Laser-Induced Graphene (LIG) as a Smart and Sustainable Material to Restrain Pandemics and Endemics: A Perspective".
A healthy environment is essential for human survival. The contagious COVID-19 virus has disastrously contaminated the environment, leading to direct or indirect transmission. Consequently, the environment requires adequate prevention and control strategies from the very start of the virus' spread. Laser-induced graphene (LIG) is a three-dimensional carbon-based nanomaterial fabricated in a single step on a wide variety of high-quality carbonaceous materials at low cost, without the use of additional chemicals, potentially used for antiviral, antibacterial and detection applications. LIG has extraordinary properties, including high surface area, electrical and thermal conductivity, environmental friendliness, easy fabrication and shaping, making it a durable material for controlling the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 or similar pandemics through different sources. The antiviral, antibacterial and antifouling properties of LIG are mainly due to the thermal and electrical properties and texture derived from nanofibres and micropores. This perspective will highlight the research conducted and future possibilities of LIG for its antimicrobial, antiviral, antifouling and sensing applications. It will also present the idea of incorporating this sustainable material into various technologies such as air purifiers, antiviral surfaces, portable sensors, water filters, sludge treatment and biosensing. It will pave the way for the exploration of this one-step graphene manufacturing technique to tackle pandemics and endemics in the near future. [2]
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"Effect of the Graphene Nanosheet on Functions of the Spike Protein in Open and Closed States: Comparison between SARS-CoV-2 Wild Type and the Omicron Variant".
The spread of the 2019 coronavirus disease caused by SARS-CoV-2 and its variants has become a global health crisis. Although there have been numerous attempts to use nanomaterial-based devices to combat SARS-CoV-2, it remains unclear how nanomaterials interact with SARS-CoV-2 and affect its biofunctions. Taking the graphene sheet (GN) as a model nanomaterial, we study here its interaction with the spike protein in WT and Omicron versions by means of molecular simulations. In the closed state, GN can insert into the region between the receptor binding domain (RBD) and the N-terminal domain (NTD) in wild-type (WT) and Omicron, keeping the RBD in the low conformation. In the open state, GN can interfere with the binding of RBD up to ACE2 in WT, but has little impact on RBD up and, worse still, stimulates the down-to-up transition of RBD down in Omicron. Furthermore, GN can insert in close proximity to the fusion peptide in both WT and Omicron and prevents detachment of S1 from the whole spike-in protein. The present study reveals the effect of the SARS-CoV-2 variant on the nanomaterial-tip protein interaction, which informs prospective efforts to design functional nanomaterials against SARS-CoV-2. [19]
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"Synthesis of exfoliated multilayer graphene and its putative interactions with SARS-CoV-2 virus investigated through computational studies".
Our work investigates the interaction of synthesised graphene with the SARS-CoV-2 virus using molecular docking and molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. The dependent inhibitory effect of the graphene nanosheet layer on the spike receptor-binding domain of 6LZG, complexed with the host receptor, i.e. angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) of SARS-CoV-2, was investigated through a computational study. A graphene sample was synthesised by mechanical exfoliation under shear stress and its mechanism of inhibition of the SARS-CoV-2 virus was explored using a molecular docking method and molecular dynamics (MD) simulation. The thermodynamic study of the binding free energy of graphene to the SARS-CoV-2 virus was analysed. The binding energy of graphene to the virus increased with the number of layers. The highest affinity is -17.5 Kcal/mol in molecular docking, while ΔGbinding is around -28.01 ± 0.04 Kcal/mol for the seven-layer structure. The increase in the number of carbon layers is associated with an increasing number of sp3-type carbon edges, providing greater curvature, further increasing the surface reactivity responsible for high binding efficiency. The MD simulation data reveal the high inhibition efficiency of the synthesised graphene against the SARS-CoV-2 virus, which would help to design future in vitro studies. The graphene system could find potential applications in personal protective equipment and diagnostic kits. [ 12 ]
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"Blocking SARS-CoV-2 Delta Variant (B.1.617.2) Spike Protein Receptor-Binding Domain Binding with the ACE2 Receptor of the Host Cell and Inhibiting Virus Infections Using Human Host Defense Peptide-Conjugated Graphene Quantum Dots".
The emergence of double-mutated delta variants (B.1.617.2) has reduced the efficacy of vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 infection. Although COVID-19 has been responsible for more than 5.4 million deaths to date, more than 40% of those infected are asymptomatic carriers, because the body's immune system can control SARS-CoV-2 infection. Here we report for the first time that the human host defence neutrophil α-defensin HNP1 and graphene quantum dots conjugated to the human cathelicidin peptide LL-37 have the ability to prevent the entry of the delta variant of the virus into host cells by blocking the binding of the delta variant of SARS-CoV-2 (B.1.617.2) to the angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor binding domain of the spike protein in host cells. Experimental data show that due to the binding between the delta variant spike protein and the bioconjugated graphene quantum dots, in the presence of the delta variant spike protein, the fluorescence signal from the graphene quantum dots abruptly quenches. [10]
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"A reduced graphene oxide-Fe3O4 composite functionalized with cetyltrimethylammonium bromide for efficient adsorption of SARS-CoV-2 spike pseudoviruses and human enteric viruses"
The latent dangers of viral transmission via water have become a major public health problem. In this study, reduced graphene oxide (rGO)-Fe3O4 nanoparticles were decorated with cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) to adsorb severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), cob pseudovirus and three human enteric viruses (HuNoV, HRV and HAdV). The successful combination of CTAB with rGO-Fe3O4 was confirmed by transmission electron microscopy, X-ray diffraction, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, zeta potential, Brunner-Emmet-Teller and vibrating sample magnetometer measurements. [7]
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"Carbon nanotubes in COVID-19: A critical review and prospects".
The rapid spread of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome-Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) around the world has devastated global health and the economy. This unprecedented situation has attracted worldwide attention. It has made it necessary to deploy an effective strategy for the rapid and appropriate identification and isolation of patients testing positive for SARS-CoV-2. As a result, several companies and institutions around the world are working to develop real-time methods, such as biosensors for the detection of various viral components, including antibodies, antigens, ribonucleic acid (RNA) or the entire virus. This article attempts to review the different mechanisms, advantages and limitations of the common biosensors currently used for detection. In addition, it summarises recent advances in various areas of the fight against COVID-19, including its prevention, diagnosis and treatment. [9]
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"Development of novel antiviral nanofinishes for bioactive textiles".
Public health epidemics caused by viruses pose a serious threat to humans worldwide. The new rampant coronavirus of 2019 (SARS-CoV-2) has been wreaking havoc in China and the rest of the world since December 2019. The focus is now on effectively reducing coronavirus and other viral and bacterial infections in hospitals, the public and private sectors, households, schools, etc. Metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, heterostructures, patterned surfaces and graphene-based materials have been shown to be up to 99.9998% effective against bacteria, moulds and viruses. The stability, long shelf life and robustness of inorganic nanoparticles make them desirable for antimicrobial nanofinishes. These inorganic antimicrobial agents are more stable than organic antibacterial compounds at high temperatures and pressures. [6]
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"Graphene-Based Technologies for Tackling COVID-19 and Future Pandemics".
The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted the need for rapid tools and technologies to combat highly infectious viruses. The excellent electrical, mechanical and other functional properties of graphene and 2D graphene-like materials (2DM) can be used to develop new and innovative devices to combat COVID-19 and future pandemics. Here, the authors describe how graphene and other technologies based on 2DM materials can be used for the detection, protection and continuous monitoring of infectious diseases, including COVID-19. [1]
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"Potential Application of Biomass Derived Graphene for COVID-19 Pandemic".
Since the emergence of the new coronavirus pandemic (COVID-19), intensive research has been carried out to find an effective vaccine. However, this remains a global challenge. Graphene has attracted attention because of its promising antimicrobial and antiviral applications, its hydrophobic characteristics and its superior electrical conductivity. Recently, biomass-derived graphene also holds great promise for combating the spread of COVID-19. In this paper, we demonstrated the capability and role of biomass-derived graphene as a superhydrophobic coating, biosensor and disinfectant in the fight against COVID-19. [30]
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"Versatile Graphene Underlies New COVID-Zapping Air Filter
Researchers have developed new methods of using graphene, an extremely versatile material, and one company is now building on this work to manufacture an air filtration device that kills bacteria and viruses - including the virus responsible for coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) - on contact. [38]
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"Can the application of graphene oxide contribute to the fight against COVID-19? Antiviral activity, diagnosis and prevention".
COVID-19 is an infectious disease that affects the respiratory system and is caused by the new coronavirus SARS-CoV-2. It was first reported in Wuhan, China, on 31 December 2019, and has affected the whole world. This pandemic has caused serious health, economic and social problems. In this situation, the only solution to combat COVID-19 is to speed up the development of antiviral drugs and vaccines to mitigate the virus and develop better antiviral methods and excellent diagnostic and prevention techniques. With the development of nanotechnologies, nanoparticles are being introduced to combat COVID-19. Graphene oxide, an oxidised derivative of graphene, is currently used in the medical field to treat certain diseases such as cancer. It is characterised by very significant antiviral properties, enabling it to be used in the treatment of certain infectious diseases. The antiviral mechanism of graphene oxide is discussed by the inactivation of the virus and/or the receptor of the host cell or by the physicochemical destruction of the viral species. In addition, the very high surface/volume ratio of graphene oxide enables biomolecules to be bound by simple absorption. This article summarises the various studies carried out on the antiviral activities of graphene oxide and discusses graphene oxide-based biosensors for virus detection and prevention approaches. [40]
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"Graphene: A Disruptive Opportunity for COVID-19 and Future Pandemics?"
The graphene revolution, which has taken place over the last 15 years, has represented a paradigm shift for science. The extraordinary properties of this unique material have paved the way for a number of applications in materials science, optoelectronics, energy and sensing. Graphene-related materials (GRMs) are now being produced on a large scale and have found niche applications in biomedical technologies, setting new standards for drug delivery and biosensing. These advances make GRMs new tools for combating the current COVID-19 and future pandemics. In this respect, MRGs can play a major role in detection, as an active component of antiviral surfaces or in virucidal formulations. The most promising strategies reported in the literature on the use of GRM-based materials against pandemic COVID-19 and other virus types are presented here, focusing on the impact of functionalization, deposition techniques and integration into devices and surface coatings. [39]
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"A case study of SARS-CoV-2 transmission behavior in a severely air-polluted city (Delhi, India) and the potential usage of graphene based materials for filtering air-pollutants and controlling/monitoring the COVID-19 pandemic".
Globally, humanity is facing its biggest challenge in 100 years due to the new coronavirus, SARS-CoV-2, which causes COVID-19. Under the enormous pressure created by the pandemic, scientists are studying the transmission mechanisms of the virus in order to develop effective mitigation strategies. However, no method has yet been developed to control the spread of this deadly virus. In addition, the ease of containment has increased air pollution, which may affect the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 through attachment to particles. The present study summarises the role of graphene-based nanomaterials, which exhibit antimicrobial behaviour and antiviral efficacy, in reducing the spread of COVID-19. Graphene and its derivatives have excellent antimicrobial efficacy, offering both physical and chemical damage mechanisms. Their light weight, optimal properties and ease of functionalisation make them ideal nanomaterials for coating fabrics such as personal protective equipment, masks and gloves to effectively control the transmission of SARS-CoV-2. Biosensors using graphene can effectively detect the virus with high accuracy and sensitivity, enabling rapid quantification. The present work should stimulate the development of highly sensitive, accurate and cost-effective graphene-based diagnostic tools to effectively monitor and control the spread of COVID-19 and other airborne viruses. [35]
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"Graphene-based nanomaterials as antimicrobial surface coatings: A parallel approach to restrain the expansion of COVID-19".
The recently emerged severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) has become a major global health challenge. SARS-CoV-2 can spread by several direct or indirect means, resulting in exponential spread in a short space of time. It is therefore essential to find new, realistic and research-based solutions to halt the spread of pathogenic micro-organisms. It has been established that this virus can survive on a variety of available surfaces ranging from a few hours to a few days, which has increased the risk of COVID-19 spreading to large populations. Currently, available surface disinfection chemicals provide only a temporary solution, and their long-term use is not recommended due to the toxicity and irritation they cause. In addition to the urgent development of antiviral vaccines and drugs, there is also a need to design and develop surface disinfectant antiviral coatings for long-term applications, even for new variants. The unique physicochemical properties of graphene-based nanomaterials (GBNs) have been extensively studied for antimicrobial applications. However, research into their use in antimicrobial surface coatings is minimal. This perspective sheds light on the scope for using GBNs as antimicrobial/antiviral surface coatings to reduce the spread of transmissible micro-organisms, in particular SARS-CoV-2. This study attempts to demonstrate the synergistic effect of GBNs and metal nanoparticles (MNPs), for their potential antiviral applications in the development of surface disinfectant coatings. Certain mechanisms proposed for the antiviral activity of the graphene family against SARS-CoV-2 were also explained. This study should provide new insights and trends to develop a framework for further research in this critically important area to minimise the transmission of current and future viral epidemics. [36]
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"Antimicrobial Activity, DFT Calculations, and Molecular Docking of Dialdehyde Cellulose/Graphene Oxide Film Against Covid-19".
The cellulose oxidation process was developed to reduce the reaction time. Dialdehyde cellulose (DAC) was synthesised by periodic oxidation under microwave irradiation and graphene oxide (GO) was synthesised by the modified Hummer method. A new DAC/GO composite was prepared from GO and DAC. The structure and morphology of DAC, GO and the DAC/GO composite were evaluated by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction. The mechanical properties of DAC and GO were assessed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The mechanical properties of DAC and DAC/GO were studied. In addition, the calculations of cellulose, DAC and GO by the DFT/B3LYP/6-31G (d) basis sets were studied. The DAC/GO composite demonstrated specific antimicrobial activity against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria. The molecular anchoring of DAC shows a binding energy interaction (- 4.1, - 4.0 and - 4.0) Kcal/mol against microbial proteins from Pseudomonas aeruginosa as Gram-negative bacteria PDB (2W7Q), and Staphylococcus aureus as Gram-positive bacteria PDB (1BQB) as well as Covid-19 PDB (7BZ5), respectively. DAC exhibits drug-like behaviour when compared to the binding energy of Hydroxychloroquine against Covid-19 as a standard drug. [37]
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"Application of nano-graphene oxide as nontoxic disinfectant against alpha and betacoronaviruses".
New viruses are emerging all the time and, recently, the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) has caused considerable concern. Nanographene oxide (nanoGO) has received a great deal of attention and is being widely studied for use in the therapy of infectious diseases caused by viruses. The antiviral activity of nanoGO was therefore evaluated using porcine epidemic diarrhoea virus (PEDV), bovine coronavirus (BCoV) and SARS-CoV-2, which are all alpha-coronaviruses and beta-coronaviruses. In a viral inhibition assay, all three viruses were inhibited by nanoGO in a dose-dependent manner, including in the presence of a high-serum solution that partially mimics biological fluid. [31]
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"Quantum mechanical studies of the adsorption of Remdesivir, as an effective drug for treatment of COVID-19, on the surface of pristine, COOH-functionalized and S-, Si- and Al- doped carbon nanotubes".
Remdesivir has been recognised as an important drug in the control of COVID-19 disease. Since carbon nanotubes have been considered in the design of new drug delivery vehicles, the interaction between single carbon nanotubes, carboxyl group-functionalised carbon nanotubes and S-, Al- and Si-doped carbon nanotubes and the drug Remdesivir was investigated using density functional theory (DFT) and time-dependent DFT calculations (TDDFT). The results of this work show that Si-doped CNTs are the best delivery system for Remdesivir due to their better electronic, energetic, adsorption and thermodynamic properties. [29]
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"Carbon fullerene and nanotube are probable binders to multiple targets of SARS-CoV-2: Insights from computational modeling and molecular dynamic simulation studies".
The present study aimed to predict the binding potential of carbon nanotubes and nano-fullerenes to multiple targets of SARS-CoV-2. Based on virulent functions, the spike glycoprotein, RNA-dependent polymerase, master protease, papain-like protease and RNA-binding domain of SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid proteins were considered as priority molecular targets and their three-dimensional (3D) structures were extracted from the Protein Data Bank. The three-dimensional structures of carbon nanotubes and nano-fullerenes were computationally modelled, and the binding potential of these nanoparticles to the selected molecular targets was predicted by molecular docking and molecular dynamics (MD) simulations. The pharmacokinetic characteristics of the main molecules were predicted by calculation. The current study suggests that fullerenes and carbon nanotubes bind significantly to multiple priority targets of SARS-CoV-2. Interestingly, carbon nanotube showed better interaction with these targets than carbon fullerene. The MD simulation studies clearly showed that the interaction between the nanoparticles and the selected targets exhibited stability and conformational changes. This study revealed that carbon nanotubes and fullerene are likely to be used as effective binders for multiple SARS-CoV-2 targets, and the study provides insight into the experimental validation and highlights the relevance of using carbon nanomaterials as a therapeutic remedy against COVID-19. [27]
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"Probing nano-QSAR to assess the interactions between carbon nanoparticles and a SARS-CoV-2 RNA fragment".
This study, published in May 2021, is entitled "Probing nano-QSAR to assess the interactions between carbon nanoparticles and a SARS-CoV-2 RNA fragment". [34]
The coronavirus-19 (COVID-19) pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) is raging around the world and poses a serious threat to global health. SARS-CoV-2 RNA has been detected in a variety of environmental media, accelerating the rate at which the virus is becoming a global biological pollutant. Since many engineered nanomaterials are capable of inducing antimicrobial activity, engineered nanomaterials offer excellent solutions for combating the viral pandemic, for example by being used as protective coatings, biosensors or nano-agents. To address some of the mechanistic issues related to the impact of engineered nano-materials on SARS-CoV-2, we studied the molecular interactions between carbon nano-particles and a SARS-CoV-2 RNA fragment (i.e. a model molecule of the SARS-CoV-2 RNA genome frameshift stimulator element) using molecular mechanics simulations. The interaction affinity between carbon nanoparticles and the SARS-CoV-2 RNA fragment increased in the following order: fullerenes < graphenes < carbon nanotubes.
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"Exploring the Role of Heavy Metals and Their Derivatives
on the Pathophysiology of COVID-19".
Many aspects of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and its disease, COVID-19, have been studied to determine its properties, transmission mechanisms and pathology. These efforts are aimed at identifying potential approaches for controlling or treating the disease. There is little evidence for early treatment of a new SARS-CoV-2 infection to minimise the progression of symptoms; however, many researchers and companies are working on vaccines, and only a few exist. COVID-19 is affected by several heavy metals and their nanoparticles. We studied the effects of heavy metals and heavy metal nanoparticles on SARS-CoV-2 and their role in the pathogenesis of COVID-19. AgNPs, AuNPs, gold-silver hybrid NPs, copper nanoparticles, zinc oxide, vanadium, gallium, bismuth, titanium, palladium, silver-grafted graphene oxide and some quantum dots were tested to see if they could minimise the severity or duration of symptoms in patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 compared with standard therapy. [25]
Cationic carbon dots stabilised by curcumin modify the structure of viral surface proteins, thereby suppressing the synthesis of the negative strand of an RNA virus and preventing viral entry through the generation of ROS. They also stimulate the production of ISG and pro-inflammatory cytokines.
Graphene oxide grafted onto metal. This is a one-atom-thick carbon atom located in a two-dimensional hexagonal lattice and is used as an anti-bacterial and anti-cancer agent. Metal-grafted graphene oxide has an antimicrobial effect and is used with metals such as silver, iron, zinc and copper or with photocatalysts such as MnS2, CdS and TiO2. Nanocomposites of graphene oxide and PNA show better antiviral activity than graphene oxide alone or even GA alone. The antiviral activity of silver graphene oxide nanocomposites (against both enveloped and non-enveloped viruses has been reported.
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"Recent progress of graphene oxide as a potential vaccine carrier and adjuvant".
Vaccines are one of the most effective strategies for preventing and controlling infectious diseases and certain non-infectious diseases, particularly cancers. Adjuvants and carriers have been appropriately added to the vaccine formulation to enhance the immunogenicity of the antigen and induce long-lasting immunity. However, there is an urgent need to develop new multi-purpose adjuvants, as some adjuvants approved for human use have limited functionality. Graphene oxide (GO), widely used for biomolecule delivery, excels at antigen loading and delivery and has the potential to activate the immune system. However, graphene oxide aggregates in biological fluids and induces cell death. It also has poor biosolubility and biocompatibility. To address these limitations, various surface modification protocols have been employed to incorporate water-compatible substances into OG to effectively improve its biocompatibility. More importantly, these modifications give the functionalized OG superior properties as a carrier and adjuvant. Recent advances in the physicochemical properties and surface modification strategies of GO for application as a carrier and adjuvant are reviewed here. IMPORTANCE STATEMENT: Due to its unique physicochemical properties, graphene oxide is widely used in medicine for photothermal cancer treatment, drug delivery, antibacterial therapy and medical imaging. Our work describes the surface modification of graphene oxide and summarises for the first time that functionalized graphene oxide serves as a vaccine carrier and shows significant adjuvant activity in activating cellular and humoral immunity. In the future, it should be introduced into vaccine research to improve efficacy.55]
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"Fabrication of Antibacterial Ag/Graphene-Integrated Non-woven Polypropylene Textile for Air Pollutant Filtering".
Air pollution and infectious diseases (such as the COVID-19 pandemic) have attracted considerable attention from governments and scientists around the world as they seek the best solutions to these problems. In this study, a novel polypropylene non-woven textile incorporating Ag/graphene was fabricated by simply immersing the textile in a solution containing Ag/graphene and simultaneously filtering out the particles. The Ag/graphene nanocomposite was prepared by reducing Ag ions on the surface of graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) using leaf extract. The prepared Ag/graphene textile was characterised by scanning electron microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), energy dispersive X-ray (EDX) and contact angle measurements. The results showed excellent integration of the Ag/GNP nanocomposite into the polypropylene non-woven textile matrix. The prepared textile exhibited superhydrophobicity with a contact angle of 152°. The maximum particle removal percentage of the Ag/GNP integrated textile was determined to be 98.5% for an Ag/GNP content of 1.5% by weight and a silicone adhesive of 1% by weight. The Ag/GNP fabric showed high antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli with no evidence of bacteria on the surface. Remarkably, the as-prepared Ag/GNP textile was very durable and stable and could be reused several times after washing. [ 44].
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"Nano-Enabled Antivirals for Overcoming Antibody Escaped Mutations Based SARS-CoV-2 Waves".
This review discusses the receptor binding domain (RBD) mutations associated with the emergence of various SARS-CoV-2 variants, which have been highlighted as one of the main causes of the recurrent clinical outbreaks of COVID-19. Our literature review reveals that most of the variants were able to evade the neutralising antibodies developed after immunisation or natural exposure, highlighting the need for a sustainable technological solution to overcome this crisis. This study therefore focuses on nanotechnologies and the development of antiviral nanomaterials with physical characteristics that antagonise viral replication checkpoints. Our detailed analysis of SARS-CoV-2 replication and pathogenesis highlights four distinct control points, the S-protein (coupling to the ACE2 receptor), the RBD motif (coupling to the ACE2 receptor), coupling to ACE2 and the S-protein cleavage site, as targets for the development of nanotechnology solutions that, for example, prevent viral attachment and fusion with the host cell by blocking either viral RBD/spike proteins or cellular ACE2 receptors.
As evidence of this concept, we highlight the applications of several nanomaterials, such as metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, carbon-based nanoparticles, carbon nanotubes, fullerene, carbon dots, quantum dots, polymeric nanoparticles, lipid-based nanoparticles, polymer-based nanoparticles, lipid-polymer hybrid-based nanoparticles, and surface-modified nanoparticles that have already been used to fight viral infections.
These nanoparticles have been developed to inhibit receptor-mediated host-virus attachment and cell fusion, virus uncaging, viral gene expression, protein synthesis, viral progenitor particle assembly and virion release. In addition, nanomaterials have been used as vectors for antiviral drugs and vaccines, and nanosensors have already been shown to enable real-time, rapid, sensitive and label-free diagnosis of viral infections. Nanobiosensors could therefore also be useful for remote screening and monitoring of patients, while nanocarriers probed with target tissues could facilitate targeted delivery of antiviral drugs to infected cells, tissues, organs or systems, while avoiding unwanted exposure of non-target tissues. Antiviral nanoparticles can also be applied to disinfectants, clothing, protective masks and other personal protective equipment to minimise horizontal spread. We believe that the nanotechnology-based solutions described in this study will allow us to control repeated waves of SAR-CoV-2 caused by antibody escape mutations. [30]
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"Hydrogel-Based Slow Release of a Receptor-Binding Domain Subunit Vaccine Elicits Neutralizing Antibody Responses Against SARS-CoV-2"
Slow hydrogel release of a receptor-binding domain subunit vaccine elicits neutralizing antibody responses against SARS-CoV-2. [39]
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"Potential of graphene-based materials to combat COVID-19: properties, perspectives, and prospects".
Potential of graphene-based materials to combat COVID-19: properties, perspectives and future prospects. [46]
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"Highly Efficient and Rapid Inactivation of Coronavirus on Non-Metal Hydrophobic Laser-Induced Graphene in Mild Conditions".
Rapid and highly efficient coronavirus inactivation on laser-induced hydrophobic non-metallic graphene under mild conditions. June 2021. [52]
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"Functionality of nanomaterials and its technological aspects - Used in preventing, diagnosing and treating COVID-19".
Functionality of nanomaterials and its technological aspects - Used to prevent, diagnose and treat COVID-19. 2021. The use of nanomaterials is proving highly effective in the prevention, detection and diagnosis of COVID-19. This document also discusses many such technologies used to combat COVID-19. Some of these technologies, such as the germ trap technology used in masks and bonnets, are also discussed. The use of nanocoatings, nanomaterials such as graphene and carbon nanomaterials plays a key role in preventing the spread of the virus. [53]
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"Tracking the interaction between single-wall carbon nanotube and SARS-Cov-2 spike glycoprotein: A molecular dynamics simulations study".
Monitoring the interaction between single-walled carbon nanotubes and the leading glycoprotein SARS-Cov-2: A study using molecular dynamics simulations. Analysis of the single-walled carbon nanotube-B domain complex indicated that the presence of single-walled carbon nanotubes is capable of inducing alterations in the S1 subunit of the spike protein, and these nanotubes could be used for further in-vitro and in-vivo antiviral studies. Single-walled carbon nanotubes can also be used in drug delivery systems. September 2021. [45]
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"Nanomedicine for COVID-19: the role of nanotechnology in the treatment and diagnosis of COVID-19".
Nanomedicine for COVID-19: the role of nanotechnologies in the treatment and diagnosis of COVID-19. To this end, gold, Ag, silver sulphide, titanium oxide, zirconium and graphene have been proposed. titanium oxide, zirconium and graphene have been suggested. [38]
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"Quantum dots as a promising agent to combat COVID-19".
Quantum dots, a promising agent in the fight against COVID-19. The positive surface charge of carbon-based quantum dots could be used to sequester/deactivate the S protein of SARS-CoV-2. [74]
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"Quantum dots against SARS-CoV-2: diagnostic and therapeutic potentials".
Quantum dots against SARS-CoV-2: diagnostic and therapeutic potential. [73]
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"SNAP@CQD as a promising therapeutic vehicle against HCoVs: An overview".
We hypothesise that carbon quantum dots conjugated to S-nitroso-N-acetylpenicillamine could provide a synergistic alternative for the treatment of respiratory lesions caused by HCoV infections. [117]
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